Addiction Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Addiction - Assignment Example Relapse can be handled in case the client has established that there is a clear plan to deal with the situation; hence, making it easier to manage after it has happened. In the case of a slip, there is a recurrence of behavior where the individual attempts to change but keep on engaging in problem behavior (Lowinson, 2005). Therefore, it is clear that a slip is less serious than a The prevalence of men relapse is more than that of women this is because staying sober requires that a person has outside support where in the case of women they are likely to seek group counseling. Additionally, people who are isolated by the addiction process need contact from other in order to give them moral support. By so doing, they help them with drug or alcohol relapse prevention plans, as well as, reducing stress and depression as they associate with other people. It has been established when individuals who have addiction issues develop a friendship with people who do not encourage their behavior they avoid relapsing (Marlatt & Donovan, 2008). Additionally, having an anonymous source of communication and support plays a vital role in ensuring that the individual has a person to encourage him or her in changing their behavior. Various warning signs that help in knowing that a person has relapsed. They include sudden relapse where there are emotional triggers, physical change and social situations where an individual withdraws from their friends and family. A person may also relapse is they have lost a loved one in a tragic death or illness.

State v. Wong (1994), 95 Ohio App. 3d 39 Case Study

State v. Wong (1994), 95 Ohio App. 3d 39 - Case Study Example erdict, on the account of insanity, but these possibilities were quickly eradicated, after two psychologists declined to testify that she might not have been sane on the day of the felony, The Appellant had sent a letter to her husband, threatening him, which illustrated the lack of sanity from the Appellant. The drugs and alcohol influence she was under in combination with the medication she had consumed could have also altered her reasoning and the claim by her daughter that she was â€Å"unwell† during the 911 call is an indication of the possibility that she was not sane while committing the felony. Dr. Jackson asserted that the appellant suffered from a paranoid delusional disorder and could have been under the disorder’s influence during the committing of the crime. The ignored these claims, returning the guilty verdict on all counts back into place. The court ended up sentencing her to fifteen to forty years in a state penitentiary, 12 years for each count of felony done, one year on every count of vandalism and did not sentence her on the gun specification count. These sentences were to run concurrently. The lack of consent of the letter, throughout the trial was unfair and unjust on Wong’s case, but the verdict passed was a bit considerate to that passed by the lower courts. Lack of consideration of the doctors insights was also vaguely

Mechanisms Of Conservative And Replicative Transposition Biology Essay

Mechanisms Of Conservative And Replicative Transposition Biology Essay Bacteriophage Mu is a temperate phage which adopts transposition pathway in its life cycle. Mu has the capability to integrate into numerous sites in host Escherichia coli genome and cause mutations due to its insertional activation. Mu transposes via two major pathways; conservative and replicative transposition though the molecular switch between the two mechanisms remain unknown. This review will focus on the comparisons between replicative and conservative transposition. The first part will discuss the similarities between the two mechanisms; donor DNA cleavage step and strand transfer step which involves nucleophilic attacks, generating single-strand nicks in Mu DNA and joining it to target DNA via one-step transesterification mechanism. The latter part will concentrate on the different characteristics in each transposition mechanism; in replicative transposition, the end product is duplication of transposon copy in both target and host DNA while in conservative transposition, a simple insertion of transposon is produced in the target DNA. 1. Characteristics of bacteriophage Mu Phage, derived from the Greek word phagein, literally means to eat. Bacteriophage Mu was named as such(find out who did) due its nature of infecting and inducing high levels of mutation in host bacteria Escherichia coli., hence the name Mu for mutator. The dual nature of Mu transposon and virus has made it as the archetypal model of studying phage genetics. Bacteriophage Mu is a temperate phage of E. coli which employs the transposition mechanism in its life cycle. Transposition can either be conservative (excising the transposon and inserting it into bacterial chromosome) or replicative (transposon copies are produced in both transposon and bacterial chromosome). Both mechanisms will be discussed extensively later in this article. Unlike the phage ÃŽÂ », insertion of Mu genome into the target site proceeds in a randomly manner which makes it an excellent mutator. Fig. 1: The life cycle of bacteriophage Mu(5). The life cycle of phage Mu is shown schematically in Fig. 1 above. Bacteriophage Mu infect susceptible host cell by adsorption and then, injects its linear viral genome. Once inside the host cell, the linear genome does not circularized(4,5,19), unlike in phage ÃŽÂ ». In either case of lytic or lysogenic phase, Mu integrates its DNA into the host genome via conservative transposition(16,19). This is observed differently in phage ÃŽÂ » where the infecting phage DNA will be integrated into host genome only during lysogenization(19). An enzyme called transposase, encoded by MuA gene in the phage genome, is absolutely crucial to carry out this conservative transposition step. Phage DNA is inserted at multiple sites in a bacterial genome which lead to the assumption that the insertion occur by a random manner(8). However, there are several factors that influence target site selection such as MuA protein efficiency and transposition immunity(15). After integration, Mu usually adopts a quiescent prophage lifestyle(lysogenic phase). The preference between lysogenic and lytic phase in Mu life cycle is dependent on its stability in the lysogen and lysogenic repressors. However, lysogens of Mu phage sometimes enter the lytic phase though this is a rare event. When induced, usually by using temperature-sensitive repressor mutants of phage Mu and subject it at 42ËÅ ¡C, the lysogen will enter lytic cycle. When the lysogenic repressor is inactivated, Mu transposes via replicative transposition, producing copies of phage genome which will be packaged into new virions. The virions then lyse the host cell and infect new hosts. Bacteriophage Mu virions comprised of icosahedral head(diameter 54nm), a baseplate, a contractile tail and six short tail fibres(5). Fig. 2: Simplified cartoon illustrating packaging of Mu genome. Typical length of phage Mu DNA is approximately 37kb long. Additional 2 kb of host DNA is incorporated during DNA packaging which is shown as flanking each end of the integrated Mu genome, with most of it at the right end. Unique sequences of host DNA and at the right end of the packaged DNA is dependent on initiation site of packaging in the host DNA(24). Fig. 3: Physical and genetic map of bacteriophage Mu. Solid black lines represent Mu DNA while the boxes at the two ends indicate flanking host DNA sequences. Mu genes (indicated in block letters) and their corresponding translational products are as indicated(19). A typical size of wild-type phage Mu DNA is about 37.5 kb, however each phage capsid can accommodate up to 39 kb long. Phage genome has a pac site which serves as the starting point in packaging of the phage DNA, located within attL(5). The initiation cleavage by phage enzyme terminase occurs upstream of the phage pac site, which includes host sequence of about 50-150bp flanking the left end. Second cleavage initiated when a complete filling of capsid is achieved, which includes 0.5 kb to 2 kb of host sequence flanking the right end(1). Genetic and physical map of phage Mu is illustrated in Fig. 3. Bacteriophage Mu utilizes headful mechanism strategy, which confer variable lengths of host DNA flanking the left ends of Mu DNA depending on the initiation site of genome packaging(Fig. 2). 2. Transposition mechanism (E) (D) (C) (B) (A) Fig. 4: Modes of bacteriophage Mu transposition. (A), (B) and (C) are the common steps in both conservative and replicative transposition of phage Mu. In conservative and replicative transposition, phage Mu will follow-up step (D) and (E) respectively. Curved arrows indicate nucleophile attack, transferring the 3-OH ends to the staggered 5-phosphate ends of target DNA. Dentate lines (XXXX) indicate target DNA sequences which are duplicated during transposition (16). Numerous in vitro studies have been conducted to study the mechanism of transposition, and usually mini-Mu elements are used. A minimal Mu element consists of a selectable gene, a plasmid replication origin and essential Mu ends(2). The mechanism of transposition is discussed in respect to an in vitro system from this point onwards unless stated otherwise. Following discussion on transposition mechanism are based on Shapiro model(22) as it has been widely accepted as the golden model in this field. The current known modes of transposition is divided into two: non-replicative (conservative) and replicative transposition. Both strategies utilize the same mechanism up to point (Fig. 4C) where each strategy employs different mechanism, producing different end products. A simple insertion of transposon is generated in target DNA by conservative transposition (Fig. 4D) while two copies of transposon formed in both donor and target DNA by replicative transposition (Fig. 4E). Point A to C are considered as the similar features in both conservative and replicative transposition while point D and E is the distinction between the two modes of transposition. Therefore, mechanisms involved in point A,B and C are discussed in context of both replicative and conservative transposition, which comprises of DNA cleavage step and strand transfer step. Sequential stages of both cleavage and strand transfer steps are illustrated in Fig. 4. 2.1 Donor DNA cleavage step Two critical chemical steps in both transposition pathways are donor DNA cleavage step and DNA strand transfer step(5,8). The donor DNA cleavage step is initiated when water molecules within an active site act as nucleophiles, and attack phosphodiester bond in DNA backbone at each of the transposon end(4,5). The cleavage step involves a direct hydrolysis of phosphodiester bond by water, and not by covalent enzyme-DNA intermediate(17). The phosphodiester bond is cleaved at the flanking host-transposon DNA boundary. 3-hydroxyl (OH) ends of the Mu DNA are exposed at the end of the cleavage step. Strand transfer results in fusion of target and donor DNA, which forms an intermediate molecule (8). The process (simplified in Fig. 4C) follows the Shapiro model(22). Bacteriophage-encoded proteins, MuA protein (transposase) and MuB protein (ATPase) are required for transposition. Other requirements to ensure efficiency of transposition are accessory proteins such as host-encoded DNA bending proteins called hydroxyurea (HU) and integration host factor (IHF)(8). The inverted repeats at the end of donor DNA, and target sequence on bacterial chromosome are also important in transposition mechanism. The assembly of higher order protein-DNA complexes called transposome has been identified by in vitro studies(6). A three-site synaptic complex called the LER complex comprising right and left ends of Mu and transpositional enhancer, was formed in the beginning of transposition in vitro(23). MuA protein binds to MuA binding site at the ends of Mu DNA as monomer, and subsequently function as tetramer of MuA (transposase). Host IHF and HU protein were found to aid in formation and stabilisation of LER complex. The LER complex is relatively unstable and so, is rapidly converted into stable synaptic complex (SSC), also known as type 0 complex(17). This is the critical checkpoint before any chemical reaction is carried out as it is the rate-limiting step of cleavage reaction(6). A stable synapse between tetramer of MuA and the two ends of Mu DNA is made but no cleavage is initiated yet at this point. Nonetheless, the active site is structurally occupied to the region around the scissile phosphate while the flanking DNA are destabilized upon formation of the SSC complex(6). In addition to formation of a stable synapse, the Mu ends needs to be properly-oriented, a super coiled DNA topology, and accessory DNA sites are also important to proceed to the next step. Formation of SSC usually is short-lived in presence of Mg2+ but can be accumulated in presence of suitable divalent cations such as Ca2+,which promotes the formation of SSC(8,17). Next, SSC is converted into a type 1 transposome complex, also called as cleaved donor complex(CDC)(9). The 3 ends of Mu DNA are nicked in presence of Mg2+. Two subunits of MuA tetramer, that are associated with the sites that undergo cleavage, assemble in trans arrangement which favours the strand transfer reaction(5). The formation of CDC can then be thought as the result of donor DNA cleavage step. Type 1 transposome complex exhibits greater stability than the type 0 complex though MuA forms structural and functional core in both transposome complexes(6). In addition of stably bound tetramer of MuA proteins, there are loosely associated MuA proteins present in the CDC as well. In absence of MuB protein, MuA tetramer is unable to promote strand transfer reaction unless these extra MuA proteins are present. MuB protein is an ATP-dependent DNA-binding protein, which also acts as an allosteric activator of Mu transposase (MuA proteins)(21). Transposition can still proceed in absence o f MuB proteins, but MuA protein by itself is only 1% efficient(3). 2.2 Strand transfer step A hallmark of this step is the formation of strand transfer complex (STC), also known as type 2 transposome complex. The end product of STC is formation of a branched molecule(Shapiro intermediate) which is characterized by a covalent interaction between donor DNA and target DNA via 5bp single-stranded gaps and its ÃŽÂ ¸ structure(22). MuB protein first captures a target molecule and bring it to the vicinity of the transposome complex, forming a TC complex(6). Formation of TC complexes rapidly undergo one-step transesterification reaction, which is the rate-limiting step in the strand transfer step. Interestingly, recruiting of target molecules by MuB proteins and formation of TC complexes can occur at several time point during the reaction pathway(6). This is a particularly efficient step to maximize transposition potential as it would speed up rate of strand transfers during transposition. The free 3-OH ends produced from the cleavage step act as nucleophile and attack phosphates of target DNA at the 5 ends. 5-nucleotides long offset nicks are made in the target DNA, generating a staggered arrangement(3). At this stage, the MuA proteins(transposase) are still tightly bound to the branched molecule with single stranded gaps. This pose an obstruction for the assembly of replication fork by host replication factors. The structure of the branched molecule is simplified in (C) of Fig. 4. The forming of this intermediate molecule serves as the critical point which distinguish between conservative and replicative transposition. A widely accepted model is that the resolving of this co-integrate molecule by a special resolvase complex leads to double copies of transposon being made in both donor and target site(REFerence). This is by definition, a replicative transposition pathway. Thus, the strand transfer complex is destabilized and disassembled by a system of eight E. coli host molecular proteins (DnaB helicase, DnaC protein, DnaG primase, DNA polymerase II, single-strand binding protein, DNA gyrase, DNA polymerase I and DNA ligase) and molecular chaperon called ClpX, producing cointegrates(13). This transition from transposome complex to a replisome results in duplication of 5-bp target DNA sequences flanking both ends of Mu DNA. Alternatively, if the bacteriophage Mu is to enter the conservative pathway, the co-integrate molecule is repaired or processed without performing Mu DNA replication. The end product of STC in a conservative transposition is a simple insertion of single mini-Mu element inserted into the target DNA(8). However, the mechanism of this model is poorly understood. Fig. 5: Transposome complexes involved during DNA cleavage complex and DNA strand transfer. (A) A plasmid (gray line) bearing donor mini-Mu element (black line) DNA in the in vitro system is negatively coiled. (B) In presence of host HU protein, Mu A protein bind to the two ends of Mu DNA forming a stable synaptic complex (not shown). Assembly of MuA tetramer produces a nick at each ends of Mu DNA, creating a cleaved donor complex (CDC). (C) Nicked 3 ends of Mu DNA are joined together to target DNA in presence of MuB protein forming a strand transfer complex (STC). MuA tetramer is still tightly bound to the Mu ends in the STC. (D) In replicative transposition, a cointegrate molecule is produced when replication of target DNA initiated from the 3 Mu ends by host replication machinery (13). 3. Replicative transposition Replicative transposition was first suggested by Ljungquist and Bukhari (1977) to occur in situ after induction of lysogens, which means that the Mu prophage was not excised from host chromosome during transposition(14). The lysogens were digested with restriction enzymes which cleaves both host and Mu DNA at specific restriction sites. Two of the fragments from the restriction digests contain both host and Mu DNA, which corresponds to junctions between host and prophage DNA, suggesting that prophage DNA is replicated in situ of host chromosome(19). Several genetic and biochemical predictions made in the Shapiro model have been demonstrated in both in vivo and in vitro studies, hence this model is accepted as a plausible mechanism to explain transposition in phage Mu. Numerous techniques have been done to study the direction of replication of Mu DNA during transposition. Results obtained by annealing of Okazaki fragments to separated strands of Mu DNA shows that more than 80% of Mu molecules replication proceed from left to right end(11,19). Electron microscopical observation of mini-Mu element shows that replicating molecules in vitro replicate from both ends in equal probability'(11,19). Replication of Mu DNA is accepted to be predominantly unidirectional, that is from left towards the right end(20). Intramolecular replication pathway can result in inversion, deletion, and simple insertion while intermolecular events can produce co-integrate molecules(19). In the case of Mu transposition, formation of co-integrate molecule needs to be resolved in order to produce two replicons; one molecule contains transposon and target DNA while another molecule contains transposon and donor DNA(10). 4. Conservative transposition The main characteristic of conservative transposition is that phage DNA is not replicated prior to integration. Upon infection of a susceptible host cell (usually E. coli), Mu employs conservative, or also called non-replicative transposition to transfer its genome to the target site. As discussed earlier, conservative transposition pathway follows single strand nicks at the 3 ends of Mu DNA, of which the exposed 3-OH ends join to the staggered cut target DNA at the 5ends forming a co-integrate molecule. The co-integrate or so-called Shapiro intermediate is repaired and generates a simple insertion in the target DNA though the mechanism is still poorly understood. Shapiro model emphasized on single-stranded nicks at Mu ends, joining of Mu to a staggered double-strand break in target DNA, formation of an intermediate molecule, and shedding of heterogeneous of previous host DNA sequences after ligation in conservative pathway(22). On the other hand, Morisato and Kleckner (1984) proposed a different mechanism based on results with Tn10 transposition. Their model is double-stranded cleavages at the transposon ends generating an excised transposon, which then circularizes via ligation on one of the strands(18). It predicts shedding of host sequences from the Mu DNA ends before ligation into the new target DNA. Study of Mu transposition using plasmid substrates in vitro produced results in favour of the Shapiro model, and hence this model has been widely accepted and used in studies. Fig. 6: A model of conservative transposition which utilizes double-strand cleavages during integration. (A) Transposase bind to the inverted repeats at Mu-host boundary sites and cleaves off the transposon away. (B) Transposase made a staggered cut at target sequence of which exposed 3-OH ends of transposon attacks 5-phosphate ends of the host (not shown). The transposon then joins to the host sequence. Duplicated target sequence of 5-bp are completed by host replication machinery (7). The debate on single-strand or double-strand cleavage however does not end there. If phage Mu were to utilize the Shapiro model of transposition during integration (the well-established cointegrate mechanism), the flanking host sequences would remain bound to Mu ends. This would clearly pose a problem as subsequent target-primed replication of the linear integrant would not work, or simply break the chromosome(1). Evidently, results from in vitro experiments are against this as the transposition end products contain transposon, suggesting a complete transposition process have been accomplished. So, does the infecting Mu DNA utilize the Shapiro model where the cointegrate molecule gets processed and repaired, prior to replication at the flanking sequence? Or does it follow a cut-and-paste mechanism where both strands of Mu DNA gets cleaved off from the flanking host DNA sequence (as illustrated in Fig. 6), where no cointegrate molecule is generated, which eventually means, there is no need for resolve by replication? An in vitro experiment was done by Au et al. (2006) to observe the fate of flanking host DNA sequences upon phage Mu infection. Specific markers specific to the infecting phage Mu DNA as well as the donor host (lacZ/proB) were used. These markers were acquired from the host in which the phage had been propagated but absent in the host being infected(1). Upon infection of plasmids by bacteriophage Mu, signal for flanking sequences and Mu DNA were detected in the chromosome at the same time point (approximately at minute 8), which correspond to the integration time point of Mu. Subsequent expression of lacZ and proB were detected maximally at minute 15, significantly reduced at minute 30 and by minute 50, expression were halted(1). Maximal expression at minute 15 most likely corresponds to climax of integration of the infecting phage population. These findings strongly suggest that flanking sequences get integrated together with Mu DNA into the new target site and are subsequently, rem oved by a special mechanism(which explained the undetectable expression at minute 50). This then proves that infecting phage Mu employs an alternate cointegrate mechanism (also called as nick-join-process mechanism) in conservative transposition pathway, where the Mu DNA undergo single-strand nicks, joins to the target DNA, and repaired before replication of the 5-bp gap left by the flanking sequence(1). The mechanism of removal and repair of host flanking sequence however, remains ambiguous. Conclusion Dual nature of bacteriophage Mu, a transposable element and a virus, is certainly interesting but what is more fascinating is that it utilizes both replicative and non-replicative transposition throughout its life cycle. The former mechanism produces a transposon copy in both donor and target DNA while the latter usually generates a simple insertion of transposon in the target DNA, leaving a gap in the host DNA which most likely will get degraded. In the early stages, both replicative and conservative transposition pathway share a similar mechanism. Regardless of the transposition pathway, infecting Mu DNA during the first round of infection will integrate its DNA into the target chromosome via two critical steps; donor DNA cleavage step and strand transfer step. Mu uses a phosphoryl transfer involving nucleophilic attacks of water on phosphodiester bonds of Mu DNA, producing single-strand nicks. A second nucleophilic attack by exposed 3-ends of Mu DNA on 5-ends of target phosphodiester bonds, which then joins the Mu DNA to target DNA via one-step transesterification mechanism. A series of transposome complexes are formed throughout these processes including Mu-encoded MuA proteins(transposase) and MuB proteins(ATPase). A cointegrate is produced in both pathways but in replicative transposition, this intermediate molecule is resolved producing two replicons with transposon copy in each molecule. In conservative transposition, the cointegrate is repaired generating a simple insertion in the target DNA. Hence, it is more accurate to name conservative transposition as nick-join-process rather than the conventional cut-and-paste mechanism as the latter suggest double-strand nicks at the transposon end, which has been proven inaccurate by in vitro experiments. Both transposition pathways have been compared extensively in this review but much of functional core of the mechanisms remain to be understood. (2944 words)

The Writing Styles Of 2 Prominent British Science Fiction Authors :: essays research papers

The Writing Styles of 2 Prominent British Science Fiction Authors "Science fiction is one of the more secluded parade grounds where private fantasy and public event meet. They call it entertainment". (Aldiss Billion 1) This quote is interpreted to mean that, in the genre of science fiction there is a fusion of fantasy and reality. It is this combination of two opposites that produces the novel categorized today as science fiction. There is one aspect of science fiction that separates it from any other genre. Science fiction can be written as fantasy one day, and read as scientific fact the next. Jules Verne has written about man setting foot on the moon. When read by its original readers the idea of space travel was not a reality. It is now common knowledge that man has walked on the moon, and when this novel is read today no longer is space travel considered to be imaginary. Skillful science fiction novelists brilliantly blend fantasy with reality, composing a very fine line between the two perceptions. When reading, one sometimes does not even realize when the author makes the transition from a plausible concept to a ludicrous one. Science fiction is a relatively new term. Novels were first categorized this way towards the close of the 1920's. This word was first utilized in short stories that appeared in the pulp magazines, of the era. The phrase "science fiction" was considered an enhancement of the term scientifiction. However several British novels were categorized as scientific romances before the 1920's. (Aldiss Trillion 27) Before Frankenstein the only forms of science fiction were "the plays of Aristophanes or some Myrenaean fragment concerning the flight to the sun on a goose's back." (Aldiss Billion 2) In these fantasies there is no blend of reality and fantasy, it is pure fantasy. There is no one story that is accepted to be the first science fiction tale. Science fiction as perceived today originated with Mary Shelley's Frankenstein. (Aldiss Trillion 18) Mary Shelley was the wife of the famous British poet, Percy Bysshe Shelley and daughter of Mary Wollenstonecraft. She was born in 1797 and her mother died soon after birth. Mary Wollenstonecraft married her husband at the age of fifteen. She produced her most famous novel entitled Frankenstein at the age of nineteen. It was published in 1818. (Ash 178) The origin of the novel came to Shelley in a dream, in which she says she saw "the hideous phantasm of a man stretched out, and then, on the working of some powerful engine, show signs of life, and stir with an uneasy half vital

Economische En Sociale Geschiedenis

Samenvatting Economische en Sociale Geschiedenis 2013 INHOUD: 1. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Before the Industrial Revolution† M. Cipolla 2. Kleine samenvatting Boek â€Å"Arm en Rijk† D. Landes 3. Samenvatting algemene hoorcolleges: Migratie & Interbellum 1. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Before the Industrial Revolution† M. Cipolla Part I CHAPTER 1: Demand (pages: 3 t/m 52) Spain census of population, 1789, lot of population estimations are rough and not precise. Small societies. Not very large growth of population in 18th century. Low fertility or high mortality is the cause of slow growth. So population of preindustrial Europe remained relatively small. more in chapter 5). Normal mortality occurs in normal years. Catastrophic mortality occurs in calamitous years, it far exceeded current fertility. Always drastic fluctuations of population. Needs: depend on population size, geographical factors, and structure of population by age/gender/occupation & sociocultural factors . Cultural factors forbid/duty to do certain things. As long as a person is free to demand what he wants, what counts on the market are not ‘needs’, but ‘wants’. Wants are both expressed by individuals and society but only have limited resources, we have to make choices.Wants become effective demand when they are backed by purchasing power. (expressed by purchasing power). Purchasing power is based on income/distribution of income (public/private) & level and structure of prices. Income and distribution: Incomes can be divided in wages/profits/interests and rents. Preindustrial Europe was a striking contrast between the abject misery of the mass and the affluence and magnificence of a limited number of very rich people. Lyon & Florence 10% of the population controlled more than 50 % of the wealth assessed. Other measurement of wealth: bags of grain. (reserves).Gregory King made accurate calculations of national income, putting to good use all the material h e had available in addition to his personal observations. Poverty and unequal distribution of wealth and income. People with no income at all beggars. In France at the end of the 17th century, beggars counted for 10 % of the population. Most people lived at subsistence level, no savings or social security to help them in distress, only hope was charity. In different European cities, there were different percentages of â€Å"beggars†. Many fluctuations in unemployment figures. In years of famine (hongersnood/schaarste) high numbers of poverty.Income can be earned or transferred. Transfers: voluntary transfers (charity/gifts) & compulsory transfers (taxation). Many people left things behind for charity when they died. Also disasters and feasts served to accentuate charity. When people died from a disaster, their belongings went to the church/hospitals. Besides charity, gambling and dowries were forms of voluntary transfers, they could affect productive activity. Compulsory tran sfers; taxation on the one hand, plunder and theft on the other hand. Theft on low-class people because of: famine, inequality of income. Noble people also: earlier centuries of middle ages.Ransom (losgeld), large transfers of wealth. In early periods, great importance of alternatives to trade. After 10th century, trade expanded and concentrated in cities. (Permanent fairs). Types of demand: Demand for production goods, demand for services, demand for capital goods. 1. Demand for consumption goods 2. Demand for services 3. Demand for capital goods Demand can also be divided into: 1. Private internal demand 2. Public internal demand 3. Foreign demand Private demand: the lower the income, the higher the percentage spend on food (logic). The poorer the country, the higher the percentage spend on food of total expenditures.The lower the income, the more spend on poorer foods, such as bread (stijfselachtig voedsel). Rich people, less amount of total income on food. Symbolic value of food in preindustrial Europe. Rich ate a lot. Somethimes too much. Purchase of clothing was luxury. Epidemics, clothing of deads were passed over, which spread the epidemics. Plagues. People lived in small houses with many families. (rents were very high in large towns, compared to the wages). Milanese Public Health Board issued rules for living, but poverty stood in the way of wisdom. Rich had domestic staff. Low wages favoured the demand of domestic services.Wages only did not represent the total expenditures on them. costs of food/living/heating and other items provided tot servants by their employers. Income not spend on consumer goods and services is naturally saved. Nobody saves to the same extent: 1. Level income 2. Psychological/sociocultural factors 3. Income distribution. Obvious when income is high that there is more possibility of saving. Rich people could invest an amount saved of their income. (Cornelig de Jonge van Ellemeet for example). National saving in England at the end of the 17th century amounted to less than 5 percent of national income.Very unfair divided income distribution. Even though England was one of the richest preindustrial societies, NO high concentration of income. Preindustrial societies were in a position to save only if they succeeded in imposing miserably low standards of living. Flow of monetary income becomes circular savingwill be converted into investment. Hoarding: preindustrial Europe, large amounts of monetary savings were hoardeddid not reach financial market (under matrasses/socks for example). A lot of hoards were accidentally discovered. Hoarding because of fear (robbery and plundering). Beginning 11th centrurydis-hoardingdivine activities.Building cathedrals, helping the poor, religious building. 11th & 12th century financed through dis-hoarding. Investment euphoria. Public demand: Arose from the 11th century, only 5-8% of national income. Before the 18th century public and private demand were different to distingu ish. Distinction: presence of CHURCH as patrimonial & economic entity. Level and structure of public demand: a. â€Å"income† public power (derive from: taxation, public loans (forced), state property exploitation, gain of the mint) b. â€Å"wants† of those in power (war/defense/court/civil administration/festivities) c. he price structure and of the community they control Public powers can increase taxes; income is function of their â€Å"wants†. Public Debt= invention of Italy city-states. Moneys lent to the state by private citizens, mostly forced loans. Citizen would receive interest on the sum lent. Throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance the public powers managed to broaden the tax base & to raise the rate of taxation. Parties Casuelles were in France the fiscal bureaus. In England and France the revenues of the Crown rose. But also rising prices, growing population, increased wealth.Fiscal privileges for the nobles (adel) hit the poor hardercomplaints! From 12th century sometimes administration was done by noblemen (no salary). A major expenditure of public money were embassies (representation). But military expenditure surpassed by far all the other expenditures. Also medical and educational services rose. Ethical & social valuepaying with public money so that ANY person (rich or poor) could get education or treatments. For example in Milan in 1288 had 3 of such surgeons. 1324 18 of such surgeons in Venice. Education: in the Middle Ages only private education (few).When communes arosepaying teachers with public money. Public schools arose rapidly. After 11the century. Education is investment in human capital. Guns & warships unattractive form of capital, capital goods middle 15th century public expenditure. Demand of the church: Church is important economic entity in preindustrial Europe. Donations from counts/barons, unable to manage land themselves so they donate to church. Very large magnitude of such estates. Before the 11th century. Following centuries nobles/wealthy donate buildings and lands to the church. 16th and 17th centurygrowing size of land holdings.Every now and then , however, church fell upon hard times in which bad administration affected property Reformation was worst period before 18th century. dissolution (ontbinding) of monasteries. A lot of monasteries (kloosters). By 1550 nothing was left of English monasteries, all possessions dispersed. Lots of income for Crown (benefit from sales). ReformationLombardy(-ije) before countries affected by Reformation. Reformation cuts into further growing of lands & possessions of church. The distribution of wealth within the church reflected the unequal distribution of wealth in society as whole.Foreign demand: Network of exchanges with other economic systems (goods/services/wealth/capital & metals). Import/Export = foreign trade. Exports are the response to foreign demand. Demand largely on food and textiles. End 16th century, clothes 80% English export. High transportation costsquality products, well do could afford these products. Industrial revolution made it possible to buy foreign made products easier. Import/Export could be measured by total GDP. (GNP). England best country with statistics on foreign trade. Henry VII (15th centrury) 300. 000. 17th century 9,5 million, increase in volume foreign trade.In Portugal, ancient manufacturers destroyed. Trade consequences depend on qualitative structures of certain trade. CHAPTER 2: The factors of production (pages; 53 t/m 96) Input is made up of factors called â€Å"factors of production†. Labor (ARBEID): divide people in consumers/producers & ages of people. Preindustrial 1/3 under 15. 60% 15-60 years old before 19th century. Difference between preindustrial & industrial societies = composition of dependent population (consumers but NOT producers). Nowadays productivity is very high, ratio of dependency 50-65%. Preindustrial: work till dead, start younger than 15.Chil d labor fields; summer. Bad treatment + female labor (agricultural/spinning/weaving). Wet nurse: sells food (mother’s milk) & cares for infant (service). Of economical and social importance. Sectors of activity: Primary, Secondary, Tertiary. Primary: Agricultural; low productivity, high % of total people worked in Primary sector not all sunk, kill and eat it, very vulnerable†¦ Working Capital: consists of stocks and inventories. (raw materials, semi-finished goods, finished goods). Stocks of foods, spared from consumption capital. Creating stocks costs money. Nowadays: ratio working capital to fixed capital is reduced. 2012, doomsday preppers however still exist;-)). Working capital is continually turned over. Continually coming back for reinvestment disinvestment is easier. STOCKS can be sold. QUESTIONL: Why low levels of production of preindustrial societies and a vicious circle of poverty? investment was so limited because opportunities for productive investment were extremely limited. Not so much because of poor potential of saving. Natural resources (NATUUR): non reproducible capital. Not infinite!!!! Land is a natural resource. Mineral deposits of: silver, gold, tin, copper, iron, etc.Medieval people were conscious about pollution more than during Industrial Rev. (Pitcoal). Forestsrules of cutting and planting trees. Later the rules became less important to the Europeans (during M. A & Renaissance). A lot of brick and marble in Italian culture because they exhausted their forests very early. Energy of water and wind for land-based activities (used on the spot), so manufacturers were located were mills could be build. Organization: labor, capital and natural resources must be combined in organizational forms which vary according to technology, the size of markets and the types of production.Different forms of organization can coexist. Preindustrial manufacturing was concentrated on the workshop. Craftsman. Dependent on who gave order (merchant s with warehouses). Mining and shipbuilding sectors. Modern capitalism manufacturing or trading sectorsled to modern capitalism. CHAPTER 3: Productivity and Production (pages; 97 t/m 114) Production is the outcome of all individual and social choices acting on both the demand and the supply side. Labor, capital and natural resources are INPUTS of production. Output emerges from their combination of use. Determinants: better education, economies of scale, technological development, etc.Entrepreneurial activity is a necessary ingredient, but not a sufficient one+ human vitality of whole society. Medieval and Renaissance productivity levels: technological progress. Agriculture (Slicher van Bath): between 1200 and 1700, grains yielded per seed planted rose. Fluctuation because natural resources, poor control over forces of nature. Animals poor fedless milk from cows, little meat. Weavers : low labor productivity meant that production processes were labor-intensive. Building industry: li ttle improvement on productivity. Other sectors noticeable improvements during MA & Renaissance. Gutenberg 1440: printing press (drukpers).The main reason for productivity gain was technological progress. Still low compared to industrial society. Not only quantity is important n measuring productivity, quality also important, but less records available. Positive production: greatest part of production in preindustrial Europe: food, textiles, buildings and domestic services. The: foreign trade. Many people produced locally. Negative production: the deliberate destruction of men and whealth & pollution and the destruction of the environment. Destruction of men and wealth for political or religious reasons. Assasins, Arsonist, Bomb-throwers. War!! -> Labor (the military) and capital (weaponry) with the avowed intention of destroying. Industrial army greater destructive power. Preindustrial: scarcity of capital. Plague destroyed men, not capital. Livestock killed, acres burned, vineyard s destroyed. a. destruction of natural resources b. pollution of the environment with the waste products of consumption c. pollution of the environment with undesirable by-products of productive activities d. damage to the health of those engaged in production In preindustrial societies less capacity for negative production. But even preindustrial societies managed to mismanage. 6th century increased use of coal in England. Domesticindustrial. (Fumifugium 1661. J. Evelyn). Miners, Gilders, Potters, Sulfur workers, Tanners, Glass-workersconcern for working conditions of labor. Part II CHAPTER 4: The Urban Revolution: The Communes (pages; 117 t/m 122) After fall down Roman empire, cities fell with it. Economic decline. North improved position, contact with south. Muslim invasion. Depressed and depressing world, rise of cities between the 11th and 13th centuries represented a new development, which changed the course of history. Differences between parts of countries and countries. Mas sive migratory movement.Towns grew because populations grew, high fertility & people from rural areas to cities. Migration: push & pull factors. Town was a place for innovation, economic and social advancement. Nobles took residence in the city (Italy). Cities became seats and centres of the power of the triumphant bourgeoisie. Citie WALLS. (protection). Towns were very different in medieval and renaissance period. Emegence of towns was a social and cultural revolution. Unique personal status for people living in cities. Burgers†¦ Italian cities attack and conquer the surrounding territory ( conflict with central power of Empire).Germans not!! France got a monarchy very soon. England, cities developed slower, very few revolutionary characteristics. Horizontal arrangements, co-operation among equals: university, fraternity, gildthe commune were the institutions created by the new outlook and which reflected new ideas. QUESTION: How did cities emerged from a portus (Belgian histo rian) beside a feudal castle of rising again from the foundations of a Roman town, was core of new society. Between 11th & 13th century. CHAPTER 5: Population: Trends & Plagues (pages; 123 t/m 136)Beginning new millennium, thin scattered population 35 million total. 1000-1400 population grew. Black dead came back in 1348, wiped out people. Also: wars, famines & epidemics struck again. En of 15the century 80 million. 16th century substantial growth. Beginning 17th100 million. Population of preindustrial Europe remained young and small. High fertility and high mortality. Marriage: manay people lived in celibacy (celibatair). Avoided for economic reasons. Age of marriage differs from time, class and country. Average age marriage around 25. Many people which DID married made it up for the unmarried.Number of children born still very high. High fertility because of youthful age structure and high mortality. QUESTION: Which types of mortality can be distinguished? Normal and catastrophic mortality. Normal mortality happens to occur in normal years. free from calamities (infants and adolescents) but WITH poverty.. While catastrophic mortality also took adults. Preindustrial societies were very vulnerable to calamities of all sorts. (WARS, FAMINES, PLAGUES (EPIDEMICS)). People literally died of hunger. Famines contributed directly to increase in mortality but also indirect by encouraging epidemics.Epidemics contributed most to the frequency and the intensity of catastrophic mortality. Balck Dead 1348. But also evey year an epidemic. Tyfus, bacteries, plaag, etc. Low growth rates. Begin 14th century several areas overpopulated, to prevailing levels of production and technology. Demographic growth big, public health development small! Effects of epidemics on given population are determined not only by the # people killed, but also by distribution of age (fertility). Normal mortality usually lower than fertility, but after a catastrophe start all over again. Citites surv ived because of flow from country to city.Epidemics after 18th century subsided. Pandemics. Mortality no longer assumed catastrophic proportions. Disappearance of plague after 17th century. Reasons: better building, burying corpses, disappearance of black rat? –> onverdedigbaar! BUT: ecological revolutiondemographic revolution, due to technological and economic achievements of western Europe. CHAPTER 6: Technology (pages; 137 t/m 159) Technological developments 1000-1700: Romans ->Watermills, slave labor (cultural reasons for development stagnations). BUT: we always think of machinery as we think of technology.Romans were very good in : organization of military, administration, architecture, road construction). Main technological developments 6th-11th century: watermills, plough, crop rotation, horseshoe, methods for harnessing draft animals. NOT inventions but increase in USE. All agricultural and strengthen each other. Many horses used, better capital. Alos IRON for equipme nt. Also developments in human capital and water power, watermill used for all kinds of productions. Also Windmillsirrigation end of 12th century. In 1745 a FANTAIL , sails into the wind automatically, 1st example of automatic control in machinery. 300 the compass, more mathematical navigation. Ship as capital greater value. Inventions: spinning wheel and spectacles (BRIL). Beginning 14th century: clocks, firearms and canal locks. Ship building: ship skeleton first during later middle ages. 15th centuryfull-rigged ships, all kinds of winds sailable. Time of voyages diminished + costs reduced. systematic knowledge of winds. Naval guns were build out of bronze. 16the centurycasting iron guns. This before mentioned provided a basis for expansion overseas. Technological innovation: printing (Gutenberg) bible, before printing was very expensive.Press opened up vast new horizons and opportunities in the fields of knowledge and education. Spread rapidly. Spinning wheel China 11the century, Europe 12th century. Innovation: small steps through numerous minor experiments. After the industrial revolution modern science. Windmill originally Persianvertical axis, European horizontal axis worked much better. Paper originally Chinesespread to Muslim empire. European paper produced with machines driven on watermills. After 12th century passion for mechanization of all productive processes. LABOR SAVING DEVICES.Mechanical clock for examplefirst measuring time in different ways, from 13the century need for solution measuring time because of mechanical outlook from people. Spread of clock: churches, public buildings, etc. Consequences of mechanization: in a number of sectors gains were achieved + mechanical outlook reinforced more and more. Logical consequence that follows is a mental outlook, which takes centuries to develop. Also feared as a source of possible dangerous disturbances. Scarcity of labor caused by epidemics one factor; but were many more and complex factors. Also mental attitudes and aspirations.WHY Europe so favourable to change? We do NOT know. The spread of technology: 12th – 15th century Italians leas technology invention. 16th-17th century Dutch and English. Through ages; main channel for diffusion of innovation has been migration of people. = migration of human capital. Sometimes things kept a secret when economic interest were at stake. Spread: migration of craftsman to other parts of country or other countries skilled labor migration. Push and pull factors, bad for economy of home country when people moved to other country. Sometimes punishments because of skilled movement.DRANG NACH OSTEN; Dutch people went to east because of fertile ground. Bologna attracted artisans in exchange for privileges. Depends on circumstances if invention takes place in host country of skilled laborers. Qualities that make people tolerant also make them receptive to new ideas. CHAPTER 7: Enterprise, Credit & Money (pages; 160 t/m 182) Enterprise a nd credit: Business techniques; organization of fairs, accounting techniques, insurance, etc. Many techniques developed between 11th and 16th century in Italy. From 16th centuryDutch and English; great trading companies.Lack of productive investment because of hoarding etc. But cities grew and credit developed very rapidly. Sale credit, therefore consumption became higher. Commenda: partnership contractsone or more give a SUM, used by other in business†¦instead of hoarding for example. Some as stock exchange, small and large savings. From 15th compagnia (coastal cities). Inland grew companies better†¦less risks (pirates, bad weather, etc). Involvement of shareholders unrelated to original family marked end of first phase in company history. End 13th century; entries publicly authenticated. Italians: double entry bookkeeping. 6th/17th oversea trade, expansion demand capital. Companies createdEast India Company, stocks and shares. Commenda: not possible without MUTUAL TRUST & honesty in business. Development civil/criminal legislation. Monetary trends: Start 11th century economy + monetary system developed. Middle Ages + Renaissance only coins. Chinese 13th century paper money already. Gold measured in carats, pure measure of gold and silver. Is intrinsic value. During Middle Ages and Renaissance monetary systems progressed. Before 1000- denariuscould work in primitive economies. Silver, 1 coin only.Until the 16th century until the Germans invented a way to mechanize the minting process involving a watermill. Many goods instead of cash (horses, weapons, etc. ) Growing demand for money after 11th century. 2 standards for coins (fineness, weight) !! Extreme: in Germany every prince or individual town strok OWN coins. M=P+(C+S) P:marketprice, M: amount someone brought in, C:charge minter, S:left of worth metal Devaluationsincrease amount in circulation= bring more metal in increase P English relatively strong coin. France unstable (1290) devaluation and r evaluation, economy suffered in France.Also due to 100 year war. Countries coinage shouldn’t belong to a king. Italy different gentler downwards devaluations than in France. Grossi, Piccioli, of denarius new phase with â€Å"multiples† of 1 coint. Bimetallic: system with silver AND gold started in Italy. Supply of metals due to discovery of African coast (Portugese; 1457, cruzado). Afterwards silver founded in parts of Germany, rush towards heavy & chunky coins. Silver â€Å"Guldiner† in Germany. Spanish came back from America with gold/silver = Real of Ocho (Eight). 16th /17th century = intrinsic fineness. 2th century and onward banking activity deposits = intangible = ink. Money. Bankers appeared money changes: intermediaries for public & mints. Depositors/bankers/payees. Bankers always hold certain amount of cash delivered to them in case people want to withdraw it. Just a fraction of total amount in KAS. –>reserve. This is the origin of bank money. In England goldsmiths who collected deposits and created money. Bank money positive development. QUESTION: Were there any economical drawbacks? Many panic, wars, high risks of losing money. Hurry to banks to collect deposits.Not all money was there because bankers only hold a â€Å"fraction† of total deposits. The rest was in investments and loans. Many banks went BANKRUPT. CHAPTER 8: Production, Income & Consumption (pages; 183 t/m 208) The great expansion: 1000-1300: Phase of expansion: new technologies/growth of towns/new sociocultural environment/increased division of labor/monetarization of economy/stimuli to saving, all these factors encouraged economic expansion. 1000- when European development took off, cultivation of land. Fertile land, NEW land. The Christian Reconquista made important progress in Spain. Territory got re-conquered.Drang nach Osten(12-13th century). As the Germans advanced, new cities were founded. By 1300 the movement had slowed down. The German eastw ard expansion was demographic, economic, political and religious in character. Very good land in the east (better capital and techniques brought with them). Expansion to Central Europe, Baltic countries. Everybody in Europe benefitted from it. Untill Ind. Rev. economy remained agricultural. Rebuilding new city walls. As were leading sectors there were leading areas. Northern Italy, bridge between Europe and north Africa. Coastal republics and important crossroads.Seafaring activity was greatly extended. Economic trends: 1300-1500: CHAPTER 9: The Emergence of the Modern Age (pages; 209 t/m 233) 2. Samenvatting Boek â€Å"Arm & Rijk † D. Landes * 1. Ongelijke bedeeldheid natuur * 2. Omgaan met natuurlijke gesteldheid: Europa en China * 3. Europa’s eigen weg * 4. De uitvinding van het uitvinden * 5. De ontsluiting van de wereld * 6. Naar de Oost * 7. Van ontdekkingen tot wereldmacht * 8. Bitterzoete eilanden * 9. Heerschappij in de Oost * 10. Gewinzucht * 11. Golconda * 1 2. Winnaars en verliezers: de balans van de wereldmacht = t/m blz 202 1. Ongelijke bedeeldheid natuur:Invloed van geografische factoren, met name klimaat. Hierarchy betreft gunstig klimaat. Inkomen per hoofd bevolking in rijke landen in de gematigde streken. Onderontwikkelde in tropen of subtropen. Geografische gesteldheid is 1 van de factoren. Eenvoudige rechtstreekse verbanden: klimaat, in warme landen is werken zwaarder, hitte, lichaam. (neem als voorbeeld siesta). Slavernij in warme streken, anderen doen het werk. AC verscheen pas laat. In Amerika al eerder. Klimaatregeling kostbare techniek, weinig armen kunnen zich dat veroorloven. Arbeidsproductiviteit in warme landen lag LAGER.Complexe en indirecte verbanden: Hitte zorgt ook voor verbreiding van voor de mens schadelijke levensvormen. Slakkenziekte (parasieten) , malaria etc. Geneeskunde grote vooruitgang geboekt bij bestrijden dergelijke ziekten. Kolonisten brachten artsen mee, hierdoor inheemse langer leven. Zuigelingsterft e erg minder. Contrast echter nog steeds schrijnend. Tropenziekten + geneeskunde (inheems). Waterregenwoud, veel regen korte tijd, verpest alle vruchtbarheid etc. Uiterste: droge streken. Opslag zou oplossing zijn, maar enorm snelle verdamping. Rampenvijandig klimaatook in rijkere landen, Amerika orkanen bijvoorbeeld.Afrika: sterftecijfer blijft hoog ondanks vooruitgant, ook mede door bevolkingsexplosie. Opvallend verschil in werkkracht en efficiency tussen gematigd en tropisch klimaat. voedingspatroon NOEM EEN DIRECTE EN INDIRECT VERBAND WAAROM WARME LANDEN HET ZWAARDER HADDEN? [zwaarder werken in hitte, AC duur, slavernij] & [hitte zorgt voor verspreiding schadelijke levensvormen] 2. Omgaan met de natuurlijke gesteldheid: Europa en China: Europa: betrouwbare en gelijkmatige waterval + gematigde temperaturen. Voedselvoorziening in handen van mensen met vruchtbare grond. Mediteraanse zee, minder regen, slechtere grond betere bomen en veeteelt.Hierdoor achterstand Zuid-Europa, ook do or culturele factoren. Waarom kwam Europa zo traag op gang na Egypte en Mesopotamiegeografische liggingLigging in wouden/bossen, epidemieen/pandemieen/hongersnood/plagen/oorlogen. Later, technologie om land te bewerken, oorlog te voeren, meer mestmere voedsel, geen wormziekten die China wel teisterden. Europeanen waren gezonder. Echter zeer vruchtbaar slib in oosten. Overstromingen en droogte perioden in China/India. Grote bevolkingsdichtheid, er werd snel getrouwd. Europa pas laat trouwen. China: tussen 1000-1300 verdubbeling bevolking, daarna afname door epidemieen.Steeds meer landbouw nodig om mensen te voeden. Agrarische revoluties. Trokken van noord naar zuid. Uitbreiding graanschuur en enorme concentratie op rijst. Arbeids en waterintensief energiemodelhydraulische samenleving eigen arbeiders, sterke overheid, niet westers. Werd ook tegengehangen. Tijd tot tijd, zonder autoriteit. WAT IS EEN HYDRAULISCHE SAMENLEVING? GEEF VOORBEELD†¦Een  hydraulische samenleving  (ook bekend onder de termen  watermonopolie-rijk  of  hydraulische these) is een sociale of overheidsstructuur, die haar macht ontleent aan de exclusieve controle over de de toegang tot water.Ten grondslag hiervan ligt meestal de noodzaak tot gecoordineerde  irrigatie  of gecontroleerde overstromingen, waardoor centrale planning en een hiertoe gespecialiseerd overheidsapparaat een belangrijke rol gaan spelen. ] 3. Europa’s eigen weg: In de 10e eeuw had Europa net een lijdensweg ondergaan van plunderingen, roof, oorlogen. Noormannen naar zuid-europa en oosterse contreienRussen. Geduchte en wrede plunderaars. Hongaren vanuit het Oosten, bleven niet lang. Hierna, door afwezigheid van agressie kon Europa groeien, mede door ondernemingszin (niet vanzelfsprekend).Tussen oude mediterrane wereld and moderne Europa zit overgangstijdkwam nieuwe samenleving op gang. Orientaals despotisme (alleenheerschappij). Hierdoor niet mogelijk eigen gang te gaan, belemmerde dus de onderneming szin. Middeleeuwen tijd van overgang, Eigendom was recht!!! Europa zag niet toe, reguleerde niet en onderdrukte niet, China wel wat betreft eigendom. Ook despotische regeringen in Europa, maar ingeperkt door de wet. Chinamuren om mensen bij zich te houden, niet overlopen naar rivalen†¦Als er in Europa rivaliteit was tussen landen, goed jegens burgersanders konden ze overlopen.Er ontstonden gemeenten als marktplaatsen. Knoopplaats tot handel met platteland (hogere status). Heersers gaven macht aan stedelingen en buitenluiomdat dat meer oogst opleverde en tevens macht heerser uitbreidde. Middeleeuwen Europa: economische revolutievoedsel, landbouwmethoden, INNOVATIE ipv UITVINDINGEN. WAAROM SPREEKT MEN LIEVER OVER INNOVATIE DAN OVER UITVINDINGEN? [nieuwe methoden stamde al uit eerdere tijden, neem windmill (vertical/horizontal axis voorbeeld OF Ploeg op wielen door Germanen meegebracht]

Dark Age of Nursing Essay

During the late middle Ages (1000-1500) -the crowding and poor sanitation in the monasteries nurses went into the community. During this era hospitals were built and the number of medical schools increases. Between 1500 and 1860 (A.D.) -the Renaissance all affected nursing. As nursing was not valued as an intellectual endeavor it lost much of its economic support and social status. The nursing conditions were at their worst and have been called the dark period of nursing. New hospitals had been built but quickly became places of horror as unsanitary conditions caused them to be a source of epidemics and disease. In 1545 -the council of Trent decreed that every community of women should live in strict enclosure. It took over 200 years of resistance for women to overcome this decree. The nursing sisters of France made little or no resistance such that their professional standards deteriorated. In the late 1500’s – several groups began nursing and tending the sick, poor, and dying. These groups were St. Francis de Sales, the Order of the Visitation of Mary, St. Vincent DePaul, the Sisters of Charity, Dames de Charite’, Louise le Gras, Brothers Hospitallers of St. John, Albuquerque, Order of St. Augustine, St. Camillas De Lellis, Jeanne Biscot, and the Nursing Sisters of St. Joseph de La Fleche. Many of these people came from rich and influential families. The dark ages of nursing lasted for three centuries until the mid 2800’s when Florence Nightingale brought about a change. Nursing during the Medieval Ages Either done by charitable religious orders or by the poor who worked for the rich. Nuns or sisters in a cloistered order made up the nursing staff in hospitals. Late Middle Ages Repression of women and cloistered orders by the Protestant church for all who followed the churches standards closely affected adversely the standards of nursing that had existed. Protestant Reformation The closing of monasteries during the Reformation by Luther and his views about the place of a woman caused many hospitals to shut to the sick and poor and further disrupted nursing care and quality. As women tended to hold the positions of nursing how women were treated and viewed strongly affected how nursing was viewed. During the 16th century Reformation and Catholic Counter-Reformation Religious orders were suppressed causing hospitals to become places of horror and a period of stagnation in nursing and health care followed. Because monasteries and hospitals were shut to the poor the sick were no longer separated from the healthy such that disease and epidemics spread. The Wars Florence Nightingale the â€Å"Lady with the Lamp† made history with her nursing work in the Crimean War and helped shake up the field of medicine. She is most remembered as a pioneer of nursing and a reformer of hospital sanitation methods. Nightingale pushed for reform of the British military health-care system and with that the profession of nursing started to gain the respect it deserved. Florence Nightingale’s two greatest life achievements–pioneering of nursing and the reform of hospitals–were amazing considering that most Victorian women of her age group did not attend universities or pursue professional careers. In 1854, after a year as a unpaid superintendent of a London â€Å"establishment for gentlewomen during illness,† the Secretary of War, Sidney Herbert, recruited Nightingale and 38 nurses for service in Scutari during the Crimean War. Nightingale was able to use the data as a tool for improving city and military hospitals. When Night ingale’s sanitary reform was implemented, the mortality rate declined. The establishment of the Army and Navy Nurse Corps opened the door for women in the military but ever so slightly. Army and Navy Nurse Corps women served valiantly throughout the war, many received decorations for their service. At least three Army nurses were awarded the Distinguished Service Cross, the nations’ second highest military honor. Nurses were wounded, and several died overseas and are buried in military cemeteries far from home. Helen Fairchild-the Army nurse (from 1917) Fairchild was one of 64 nurses from Pennsylvania Hospital who had volunteered to join the American Expeditionary Force after the United States entered World War I on April 6, 1917. Nurse Fairchild died on Jan. 8, 1918, while on duty with British Base Hospital Alexandra of Denmark – Queen Queen Alexandra, the queen consort of Edward VII of Great Britain was known for founding Queen Alexandra’s Royal Army Nursing Corps. Margaret Sanger (1879-1966) Margaret Sanger was birth control pioneer and founder of Planned Parenthood Civil War Nursing Women played a major role in nursing and sanitation efforts during the Civil War, paving the way for their entry into the nursing profession in greater numbers after the war, as well as paving the way for further professionalization of the nursing field. Dorothea Dix – Social Reformer Dorothea Dix was an activist who served in the Civil War as Superintendent of Female Nurses and she also worked for reform of treatment for the mentally ill. Clara Barton (1812-1912) Clara Barton was a Civil War nurse and founder of the American Red Cross. Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman was an escaped slave who helped others escape from slavery and was known as the Moses of her people. She was also a spy, nurse, and speaker for women’s rights. African American Women Nurses Black women who have served as nurses, often in wartime. The Army Nurse Corps was established in 1901 to provide a permanent active nursing corps. In World War II, the number of Army nurses by the end of the war was 57,000. The Army Nurse Corps has not only served the military by nursing wounded soldiers and reducing the death rate from disease, but has also served as a route for women to make a difference and build a career.